Sri Lanka History and Culture: A Guide to the Ancient Kingdoms

Sri Lanka has a recorded history spanning over 2,500 years, making it one of the oldest continuously documented civilisations in Asia. The island’s history is shaped by successive ancient kingdoms, the arrival and spread of Buddhism, periods of South Indian invasion and Hindu influence, four centuries of European colonial rule under the Portuguese, Dutch, and British, and a modern independence movement that culminated in 1948. Understanding this layered history transforms a visit to Sri Lanka from simple sightseeing into a deeper appreciation of the temples, ruins, and cultural traditions encountered at every destination. This guide provides the historical and cultural context behind the island’s most visited sites. For the mythological dimension of Sri Lankan history connected to the Hindu epic, read about our Ramayana Trail tour.

The Arrival of Buddhism

Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka in 247 BC when Mahinda Thera, the son of the Indian Emperor Ashoka, travelled to the island and converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to the Buddhist faith. This event is traditionally said to have taken place at Mihintale, a rocky hill near Anuradhapura where Mahinda Thera is believed to have first preached to the king during a hunting expedition. Within a few decades of this conversion, Buddhism had become the dominant religion of the island and remains so today, with approximately 70 percent of the population identifying as Buddhist. In 249 BC, a sapling from the original Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India, under which the Buddha attained enlightenment, was brought to Sri Lanka and planted at Anuradhapura. This tree, the Sri Maha Bodhi, is still alive today and is the oldest documented living tree in the world with a known planting date. The introduction of Buddhism fundamentally shaped Sri Lankan art, architecture, law, and social structure for the following two and a half millennia, and the religion’s influence is visible at nearly every historical site on the island.

The Anuradhapura Kingdom

The Anuradhapura Kingdom was the first major Sinhalese kingdom in Sri Lanka, with the city of Anuradhapura serving as the capital from approximately the 4th century BC until the 11th century AD, a period of over 1,400 years. During this extended period, Anuradhapura developed into one of the great cities of the ancient world, with sophisticated irrigation systems, monumental Buddhist stupas, and a thriving monastic community that attracted scholars from across Asia. The kingdom reached its peak under rulers such as Dutugamunu, who built the Ruwanwelisaya stupa in the 2nd century BC, and Mahasena, who constructed the Jetavanaramaya in the 3rd century AD, which at 122 metres was the third tallest structure in the ancient world at the time of its completion. The Anuradhapura period ended in 1017 AD when the Chola dynasty from South India invaded and sacked the city, forcing the Sinhalese kingdom to relocate its capital further south and east.

The Polonnaruwa Kingdom

Following the fall of Anuradhapura, the Sinhalese kingdom re-established itself at Polonnaruwa, which served as the capital from the 11th to the 13th centuries. King Parakramabahu I, who reigned from 1153 to 1186 AD, is considered the greatest ruler of this period and oversaw a golden age of construction, including the Parakrama Samudra, a vast irrigation reservoir covering 2,500 hectares that remains in use today. The Gal Vihara at Polonnaruwa contains four enormous Buddha statues carved directly into a granite rock face, including a 14-metre reclining Buddha considered one of the finest examples of ancient Sinhalese rock sculpture. Polonnaruwa declined after repeated invasions from South India in the 13th century, and the Sinhalese kingdom subsequently fragmented into several smaller kingdoms based in different parts of the island, eventually leading to the rise of the Kandyan Kingdom in the central highlands.

Sigiriya and the Reign of King Kasyapa

Between the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods, Sigiriya briefly served as the royal capital of Sri Lanka under King Kasyapa I, who reigned from 477 to 495 AD. Kasyapa seized the throne after killing his father King Dhatusena, and built his palace atop the 200-metre granite rock at Sigiriya as a defensible fortress against his half-brother Moggallana, who had fled to India and was expected to return with an army seeking revenge. The Sigiriya frescoes, the Mirror Wall inscriptions, and the sophisticated water garden hydraulics at the base of the rock all date from this brief but architecturally significant 18-year reign. Kasyapa was killed in battle when Moggallana returned in 495 AD, and Sigiriya was subsequently converted back into a Buddhist monastery, a function it served until approximately the 14th century before being abandoned and eventually rediscovered by British archaeologists in 1894.

Dambulla and the Cave Temple Tradition

The Dambulla Cave Temple, located near Dambulla in the Cultural Triangle, represents one of the longest continuous traditions of Buddhist worship in Sri Lanka, with its origins dating to the 1st century BC when King Valagamba used the natural cave system as a refuge during an 11-year exile from Anuradhapura. Upon regaining his throne in 89 BC, Valagamba converted the caves into a temple complex as an act of religious gratitude. Over the following two thousand years, successive Sri Lankan kings added statues, paintings, and additional shrines to the complex, creating a continuous record of Buddhist artistic and architectural development from the 1st century BC through to the 18th century AD, when King Kirti Sri Rajasinha made the final major additions to the cave complex.

The Kandyan Kingdom

Kandy became the last independent Sinhalese kingdom in Sri Lanka, established in the central highlands in the 15th century and maintaining its sovereignty for over three centuries against successive waves of European colonial pressure. The Kandyan Kingdom successfully resisted Portuguese attempts at conquest in the 16th and 17th centuries and Dutch attempts in the 17th and 18th centuries, protected in part by the defensible mountainous terrain surrounding the city. The Temple of the Tooth Relic, housing the sacred tooth relic of the Buddha, became the spiritual and political centre of the kingdom, as possession of the relic was considered essential to legitimate Sinhalese kingship. The Kandyan Kingdom finally fell to the British in 1815 under the Kandyan Convention, a treaty that formally ended Sri Lankan independence and brought the entire island under British colonial control for the first time in its history.

Colonial Rule: Portuguese, Dutch, and British

European colonial rule in Sri Lanka began in 1505 when Portuguese traders established a presence on the coast, eventually gaining control of the coastal lowlands while the Kandyan Kingdom remained independent in the highlands. The Portuguese introduced Catholicism, which remains practised by a significant minority of Sri Lankans particularly around Negombo. The Dutch East India Company displaced the Portuguese in 1658 and ruled the coastal regions until 1796, leaving behind the extensive fortifications still visible at Galle Fort, along with Dutch colonial architecture, canal systems, and Roman-Dutch legal traditions that still influence Sri Lankan law today. The British took control from the Dutch in 1796 and completed the conquest of the entire island in 1815 with the fall of the Kandyan Kingdom. British rule introduced the plantation economy that established Sri Lanka as a major producer of tea, rubber, and coconut, brought Tamil labourers from South India to work the highland tea estates, and constructed the railway network that still connects Colombo to Kandy and the hill country today. Sri Lanka gained independence from British rule on 4 February 1948.

Religious Diversity in Sri Lanka

While Buddhism is the majority religion practised by approximately 70 percent of Sri Lankans, the island has a long history of religious diversity. Hinduism is practised by approximately 12 percent of the population, primarily by the Tamil community concentrated in the north and east, with significant Hindu temples found throughout the island including the Koneswaram Temple in Trincomalee and numerous shrines along the Ramayana Trail. Islam arrived in Sri Lanka through Arab traders as early as the 7th century and is practised by approximately 10 percent of the population, primarily the Moor community concentrated in the eastern and central provinces. Christianity, introduced by the Portuguese and later reinforced by Dutch and British missionaries, is practised by approximately 7 percent of the population, with both Catholic and Protestant traditions well established, particularly in the Negombo and Colombo areas. This religious diversity is reflected in the architecture of Sri Lankan towns and cities, where Buddhist temples, Hindu kovils, mosques, and churches often stand within close proximity of each other.

Cultural Traditions and the Kandyan Arts

Sri Lankan classical dance and music developed primarily within the Kandyan court tradition and remains closely associated with religious and ceremonial life. Kandyan dance encompasses several distinct regional styles including Udarata (upcountry) dance, Pahatharata (low country) dance, and Sabaragamuwa dance, each with its own costume, drumming style, and choreography. The Ves dance, performed by male dancers wearing an elaborate headdress and silver jewellery, is considered the most prestigious form of Kandyan dance and is traditionally performed only by dancers who have undergone a ceremonial investiture. Traditional crafts including wood carving, brass work, batik textile dyeing, and lacquer work have been practised in the Kandy and Matale areas for centuries, often connected historically to temple and royal patronage. These traditions remain visible today in workshops and cultural shows throughout the hill country region.

Experience Sri Lanka’s History on Tour

Understanding the history behind Sri Lanka’s ancient cities and temples transforms a sightseeing visit into a genuinely meaningful experience. Browse our Sri Lanka tour packages to explore the Cultural Triangle, the Kandyan highlands, and the colonial heritage of the southern coast with an experienced local guide who can bring this history to life at every destination.